Mohan Naimishray’s Apne-apne piñjare (1995) is one of the most influential works of Dalit literature in Hindi and an outstanding instance of the ātmakathā (autobiography) that is the signature genre of Dalit self-expression. It is instructive to contrast Naimishray’s style of narration with that of Premchand (1880-1936), whose voice is that of a nationalist writer who could sympathize with the plight of Dalits but who could not render their suffering in the first person. (Several stories and articles by Premchand are available on this site.)

The selections excerpted here, vignettes from the author’s childhood, are written in a lively, colloquial style. The reader can just about smell the bazaars of Meerut—its enticing sweets but also the stenches of the leather work performed by the camār caste.

These episodes also constitute a literary broadside that masterfully lampoons the self-important upper castes and, indeed, undercuts the very premises of Brahmanical existence. Note in particular Naimishray’s description of a Hindu temple and the goings on inside and outside of its precincts—hardly the epitome of material or spiritual purity. Naimishray transforms the sacred symbols of high caste Hinduism into objects of ridicule.

On this page

The Hindi text of this story is available as a PDF with pages corresponding to the page numbers below. It is also available in Nastaliq.

If the words below appear as boxes or nonsense, please see the introduction page for help.

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Glossary

pp. 11-12

गली	f. A narrow street, a lane, an alley
के भीतर	Inside
धात	1. m. A mineral, fossil, metal, ore. 2. f. Semen virile
मर्द / नामर्द	adj. Virile / impotent (मर्द of course also means "man," m.)
हकीम	Physician
इमामजस्ता	also इमामदस्ता m. mortar and pestle
कुटना	to be crushed
पुस्ता	powders /minerals crushed in a mortar and pestle (take closely with the previous words)
हरम	m. a harem; adj. haram (prohibited under Islamic law)
अकूत	adj. Unestimable
संदूक	m. Container
तिजोरी	f. Chest, coffer, safe
चिनवाना	v.t. To have (a wall or a doorway) built up; to have (a person) immured
फर्श	m. Floor
गड़वाना	v.t. To bury
ऐयार	m. wizard, a kind of spy-magician (see Chandrakanta introduction on this site)
ऐयाश	m. pleasure-seeker
चाटना	v.i. To taste, to consume
चटाना	v.t. To cause to taste
विधायक	m. Legislator, elected representative
संत्री - संतरी	m. Guard, doorkeeper (must be from English word "sentry")
भूमिगत	adj. Underground
भूगोल	m. Geography
संकरा	adj. Narrow
धंसना	v.i. to be dug, plunged, sunk, cratered, pierced
संस्कृति	f. Culture
छाप	f. Stamp, print, copy, impression
अनगिनत	adj. Innumerable
बस्ती	f. Settlement, colony
अधिकतर	adv. Mostly
तीखा	adj. spicy, strong
महकना	v.n. To exude an agreeable scent (महक is used as a f. noun here)
डेग	same as देग , f. copper/metal pot
खमीर	Adj. In which there is ferment
हलीम	Condiment (One Hindi dictionary says that among Muslims this means खिचड़ी)
कटोरा	m. A small brass or copper bowl
पर्दानशीन	sitting in pardah. as in those who observe pardah. i.e. women who avoid coming before men without being thoroughly covered to different degrees
बालूसाई	also बालूशाही , f. a special sweet
इमरती (अम्रिती)	f. a sweet. orange in colour, kind of like a jalebi
सपाट	adj. Flat, level, smooth, even, plain
गंधहीन	adj. Clean (literally "scent-less")
दुर्गंध	f. Stench (how odd that this word is f. in Hindi. It's m. in Sanskrit)
परिवेश	m. Environment, surroundings
चमड़ा	m. A hide, skin, leather
चमार	m. A caste of men who work in leather; a member of that caste
चमारवाड़ा	m. Quarter of the ćamār
मुगल	Moghul
समूचा	adj. All, entire, whole; full, complete; adv. In a whole state, in its entirety
लश्कर	m. Army
हमलावर	adj. Invasive
दस्ता	m. Contingent, cohort
चप्पा	m. A hand-breadth, a measure of four fingers, a span (of land)
चप्पा-चप्पा	adv. Every span of land, every inch of ground
जातिगत	adj. Along caste lines
वाड़ा	m. Where people of the same trade or caste dwell
पाड़ा	m. (used in comp.) Quarter of a town, district, ward
जत्तीवाड़ा	(this word couldn't be found)
पौडीवाड़ा	m. outskirts
जटवाड़ा	"The place of जट" Probably from जटिया (not जाट). A native speaker reports, "In Rajasthan we have जिटया community everywhere. They are considered very lower caste and of course very poor. In some cities the जटिया neighbourhoods are famous for prostitution. जटिया people become very happy when they have a female child."
छीपीवाड़ा	tailors' district
ठटेरवाड़ा	copper/metal workers' district
बनियापाड़ा	m. Quarter of the baniyas, merchants. (i.e. higher caste)
नील	m. blue (also indigo, used in dye)
रोहतगी	This is an upper caste group (kshatriya)
सुनार	m. A worker in gold, a goldsmith
कसाई	m. A butcher
पुलिया	f. culvert
लोद्धा	A native speaker reports, "I never heard about लोधदा. I know लढ्ढा and लोढा are Jains." Here are some other thoughts: possibly related to लोहा , iron? Thus iron workers? Or here is an entry from Platts's dictionary: m. The red Lodh-tree (from the bark of which an astringent infusion is prepared which is used to fix colour in dyeing)
सैनी	f. a caste group. A native speaker said said, "सैनी are confusing, in Hariyana they are माली (gardener) in Rajasthan they are नाई (barber) and I think they used to be kshatriya."
धीवर	m. The caste of fishermen, a fisherman
सराय	f. inn

pp. 12-13

पहचान -(f)- 1. recognition, 2. distinction, discrimination; judgment
सिमटना -(v.i)- 1. to be drawn together; to contract, 2. to be collected, concentrated, 3. to shrink; to shrivel; to shrink in shame
धड़कना -(v.i)- 1. to beat, to throb, to palpitate, 2. to blaze up, to burn fiercely, 3. to burn (as w/ anger or fear), 4. to tremble (w/ fear)
स्वर -(m)- 1. sound, noise, 2. voice
बस्ती -(f)- 1. a settlement, 2. a makeshift settlement of homeless people, 3. inhabitants
उपज -(f)- 1. produce, 2. production (of good, assets)
मिज़ाज -(m)- 1.nature, temperament, 2. mood, humor, temper
गंवई -(adj. or f)- 1. having to do w/ a village, rustic, 2. a small village
कस्बाई - an adjective meaning, "having to do with a small town or large village"
अंदाज -(m)- 1. manner, style, 2. rough estimate; guess
लुभाना -(v.t, v.i)- 1.(t) to arouse desire in; to entice, to charm, 2.(i) to feel desire; to be tempted
बीचोबीच - (w/ के) in the very middle of, in the midst of
घंटाघर - (m)- 1. a clock tower
तहसील -(f)- 1. a revenue district, 2. the offices or court of a revenue collector
लोहा -(m)- 1. iron, steel
टंकी (f) - Cistern, tank
शान -(f)- 1. dignity, state, pomp, grandeur, 2. majesty, glory
सामूहिक -(adj.)- 1. collective (from Sanskrit समूह, m. group)
मुसाफिर -(m)- 1. a traveler, 2. a passenger
ससुराल -(f)- 1. father-in-law's house or family, 2. Slang-prison
पर्दानशीन - (see above)
जवानी -(f)- 1. youth, early adulthood, adolescence
सांवला -(adj)- dark-complexioned
अनगिनत -(adj.)- uncounted, innumerable
गोद -(f)- 1. lap, 2. bosom
प्रेमिका -(f)- 1. a woman who loves, 2. a woman who is loved
वेश्या -(f)- 1. a prostitute
आंधी -(f)- 1.a dust storm; a whirlwind, 2. a storm
तूफ़ान -(m)- 1. a storm of wind and rain, 2. a disastrous flood, 3. Figuratively-a calamity

p. 27

सवर्ण - (adj) of the same color, of a single color 2. of similar appearance 3. of the same varna (here it means upper caste people--people who have a 'varna' as opposed to those, like dalits, who are beyond the pale)
भीतर - (adv/pp) Interior, in, into, in the space
पौध - related to पौदा, (m) a plant (पौधा is standard Hindi for plant. Some speakers, including Urduwale, do not aspirate the second consonant)
प्रवेश करना - To find entrance (into), to enter (into)
टोका-टोकी करना - echo compound from टोकना, to object, kick up a fuss, intervene
भरसक - (adj) with one's full ability (note the two roots embedded here)
प्रयास - (m) Effort, exertion, labor, pains
भ्रष्ट - (adj) Fallen, degraded, debased, polluted, abominable, depraved, lost, vicious, dissolute; outraged, violated, debauched. (Also corrupt. Corruption is भ्रष्टाचार m.)
बनिया - (m) merchant 2. shopkeeper, grocer. 3. pej. Petty-minded man, money-grubber 4. a timid man
मुख - (m) face, mouth
टांग - (f) leg, foot
मजदूर - (m) A hired laborer, hireling; carrier, porter, cooly
स्वयं - (reflex. pronoun) Self; one's self; by oneself; of oneself, of one's own accord
पांव - (m) Foot; leg; foot-print
सुहाना - v.i. to be pleasing/agreeable. (The adj. is सुहावना)
व्यक्ति - m./f. person/individual
अवश्य - (adv) certainly, of course; cf. ضرور
अंदाज़ - (m) 1 rough estimate 2. conjecture, guess 3. manner, style; gait; gestures 4. affectation
जड़खरीद - Split this up into जड़ (m. root, foundation, essential aspect) + खरीद (the sense is something like completely owned/purchased from birth). In English we might say something like "god-given" [slave]
गुलाम - (m) 1. a slave 2. a servant
तू-तड़ाक - echo compound तू is the least polite 2nd person pronoun तड़ाक is an adv. meaning with a crack or crash, also quickly. (The idea is that the upper castes always address the dalits imperiously and rudely.)
संपत्ति - (f) wealth, riches; property, possessions; resources
अधिकार - (m) authority, power; government, rule, administration
संतोष - (m) satisfaction, pleasure
उचकना - (v.n). to be raised or lifted up; to rise; to be jerked up (also to stand on tip toe)
बनावट - (f) make, structure, construction, build, formation, composition, manufacture, workmanship, work
सुनसान - (adj / m., rel: सुन्न) adj: desolate, dreary, n: quiet, still (a place)
मसोसना - (v. t) to twist; to wring; to press, squeeze (मन मसोसना--to feel an inner pang of sorrow or regret, also to suppress such a feeling. These are little dalit children and they too are dying to go into the temple and see all the sites/excitement that non-dallit people experience.)
अपवित्र - (adj) unclean, unholy; impure, defiled.
सुरक्षा - (f) security, safety
प्रयास - (m) effort, exertion, labor, pains, endeavor
शक्ल - (rel.: शकल) (f) likeness, appearance, features. 2 shape, form 3. means, manner
बुर्राक - (rel: बर्राक़) adj. 1. flashing, brilliant. 2. snow-white, unblemished
समूचा - (adj) All, entire, whole; full, complete
परिवेश - (rel: परिवेष) (m) 1. circle, circumference 2. transf. Halo 3. fig. Surroundings, environment, atmosphere
भदरंग - (rel.: बदरंग) adj. Faded

p. 28

मुहिम - (f) 1. an important matter; an enterprise. 2. an expedition; campaign. 3. an exploit
छिड़ना - (vi) 1. to be touched. 2. to begin
थूकना - (vi) to spit (at, पर)
बाज़ आना - to draw back (from, से); to desist or refrain from.
पीक - (f.) juice of chewed betel, spat out.
निशान - (m.) sign, signal ... 3. mark, impression
मूतना - (vi) to urinate
पेशाब - (m) urine
भिगोना - (vt) to wet; to soak; to steep
उधर से - (adv) from that side, thence; in that direction
सिनकना - (vi) to blow (the nose)
चकला - (m) 1. a circular object ... 4. brothel
जुआ - (m) gambling
आस्था - (f) consideration: 1. faith, belief. 2. regard, respect.
आश्रय - (m) refuge, shelter
कोठरी - (f) 1. small or dark room. 2. store-room; granary; shed.
टोटा - (m) tube 2. cigarette end.
जमादरनी - from जमादार - (m) a sweeper (जमादरनी is f. sweeper)
बुहारना - (vt) to sweep, dust
सकेरना - (vt) to gather together, collect
उड़सना - (vt) to pierce, to insert; to insert, to fold in.
कलाल = कलवार = (m) 1. a distiller of spirits; ...2. a seller of spirits
गुड़चने - गुड़ (m) raw sugar, boiled sugar cane juice (called jaggery in Indian English) + चना (m.) chick peas—when roasted, a cheap and hearty staple
तृप्त (adj) satisfied, sated
सट्टा - (m) commercial transaction. 2. a written agreement. (One would guess खाना works here as it does in कसम खाना. Closer in usage to घूस/रिशवत खाना, to take a bribe.) Take सट्टा in a sleazier sense of speculation/Picture a Tej Singh ponzi scheme.
पल - (m) moment, instant
नतमस्तक - (adj.) having the head lowered (in devotion, deference, or in defeat)
ग्राहक - (m) one who takes, receives or values sthg.: a customer; a subscriber
अधिकांश - m & adj. greater part, majority
घिरना - (vi) to be surrounded or enclosed (by, से). (we already saw घेरना, v.t.)
असामी - (m) 1. a person ... 3. a client, customer
गिरवी - (adj. & f) pledged, pawned
चढ़ावा - (m) anything presented in sacrifice; any religious offering or gift.
पड़ाव - (m) 1. halting-place; camping-ground.

p. 29

रसोइया (m) cook.
पड़ाव (m) camping ground, camp, assemblage.
यानी (conj.) that is, i.e.
रस्तोगी - caste name, see above. (Also a few lines down the author gives one derivation of the name)
बनैनी-बामनी - female baniya, female Brahman
प्रवेश(m) entry, admission.
गिद्ध (m) a vulture, cunning or greedy person.
दृष्टि (f) sight, look, glance, view.
बताशा (m) a hollow sugar cake.
चूरा (m) powder, sawdust, fragments.
गाल (f) cheek.
गुड़ंचू - a fist
मुटठी (f) a fist, clutch, grasp, handful.
राल (f) spittle, saliva.
हल्ला (m) noise, din, shout, uproar.
घूरना (v.t.) to glare at, ogle.
बिखरना (v.i.) to be disheveled, scattered, dispersed.
झट से (adv.) quickly.
बुर्राक (adj.) flashing, brilliant, snow-white, unblemished.
खड़ाऊँ (m) a wooden-soled sandal
खट-खट (from खटना (v.i.) to make a "khat-khat" sound (take this as an onomatopoeic verb)—picture a wooden clog clomping on the ground.
अवश्य (adv.) certainly
पूर्व (adj.) foremost, east, prior, initial. (here in the sense of पहले)
उड़ंछू (adj) flown off as if by enchantment; gone with the wind.
चिढ़ाना (v.t.) to irritate, offend, provoke.
कोठरी (f) store room.
गूंजना (v.i.) to hum, buzz, resound, echo.
दुर्घटना (f) accident, disaster, outbreak of violence.
जवाबदेही (m) responsibility, accountability.
वास करना (v.i.) to reside.
माफ (adj) forgiven, excused.
रपट (f) report.
अक्खड़ (adj.) unyielding, uncouth, uncivilized.
दीवान (m) royal court, council of state, minister of state, secretary.

p. 30

चौकी n.f. watch-post
भभूत n.f. ashes of cow-dung
जिस्मानी adj.physical
गर्भ n.m. pregnancy
नपुंसक adj. impotent
डंडा चलना v.t. to beat
बामन n.m. brahman
लपकना v.i. to rush
झपकना v.i. to move back and forth
ठठेरवाड़ा n.m. coppersmiths' quarter
सरासर sar-ā-sar (see sar), adv. From end to end, out and out
पालिका n.m. protection/safety (नगर पालिका - f. technical government term for "municipal corporation.")
शास्त्र n.m. pl. the scriptures
उल्लेख n.m. mention (the construction is X का उल्लेख होना or करना)
निषेध n.m. ban/veto
असल में - in fact
खड़काना v.t. to slam
अपराध n.m. fault/offence
फँसना - vi to be entangled in
लोटा n.m. small round pot
भेद n.m.difference/distinction
पल्लू m. edge of a saree
छलांगना v.i. to leap, to spring (Here छलांग, f. is used as a noun)
सटना v.i. to be joined, to be united
कोठरी n.f. cell/ store-room
मज़ार n.m. shrine/place of pilgrimage
सरसों f. mustard oil

p. 31

भीङ	f. crowd, rush	بھیڑ
विशेषतौर	f. peculiarity (seems to be used adverbially here with "पर")
मरघट	m. cremation ground	مرگھٹ
सन्नाटा	m. loneliness, silence	سناّٹا
खड़कना	v. to rattle, to jingle	کھڑکنا
ठंडक	f. coolness	ٹھنڈک
हांकना	v. to drive, to push away, to goad (can mean all this, as in driving cattle, etc., but here the sense is that these seniors are chattering amidst each other, complaining, etc)	ہانکنا
बुराई	f. vice, defect, fault (बुराई करना - to speak poorly of, to defame)	برائی
कोसना	v. to curse	کوسنا
तुलना	v. to measure, to compare (the expression here, a very common one, is X की तुलना करना - to compare	تلنا
चौपाल	m. rural meeting place, sitting verandah	چَوپال
फौरन	adv. immediately, instantly	فوراً
झट	adv. immediately, instantly	جھٹ
भरस्ट	a dialectical, that is to say भ्रष्ट form of भ्रष्ट, m. corruption, used here with करना - to corrupt
शेष	adj. remaining (synonym: باقی)
उम्र	f. age	عمر
आजादी	f. liberty, freedom	آزادی
म्हारे	dialect for हमारे
बांटना	v. to distribute	بانٹنا
मोतीचुर	m. fine drops of gram flour solution fried to make मोतीचुर के लड्डू	موتیچُور
इकट्ठे	adv. together	اکٹھے
रणामस्वरुप	"as a result" (परिणामस्वरुप = परिणाम (result) + स्वरुप (nature))
अंगुली	f. finger	انگلی
नाराज	a. upset, displeased, unsatisfied	ناراض
सन्न	a. stunned, stupefied	سن
कोना	m. corner	کونا
ज्वालामुखी	m. volcano	جوالامکھی
झिझोङना	v.to jostle, wrench away tempestuously (take closely with ज्वालामुखी)
ढोर	m./adj. cattle, beast, brute, stupid	ڈھور

p. 32

आवेश	(m) Emotion, passion.
नास्तिक	(adj. & m) Denying, atheistical, unbelieving.	ناستك
अनास्था	अ (in this case अन)+ आस्था (f- 1. faith, belief. 2. regard, respect).
सेंकना	(v.t.) To warm, heat, foment; to air by warming; to dry before a fire.	سينکنا
रची-बसी	रचना (v) To be made, be formed or fashioned, be created. बसना (v) 1. To dwell, abide. 2. To be perfumed, be scented
ग्रंथि	(f) Knot, gland
आंच	(f) Flame, blaze; flash, brilliance, splendour; heat, warmth; fire; maternal affection.	آنچ
छाती	(f) The breast, chest, bosom.	چهاتي
गेंद	(f) A ball (for playing with).	گوند
निश्चित	(adj.) Ascertained, determined, decided, established, certain.	نشچت
जिद	(f) Tenacity, insistence.
स्तन	(m) Breast (of a woman); nipple; teat.	ستن
ताई	(f) The wife of a father's elder brother; paternal uncle's wife; a term of respectful compellation or mention of a female generally.	تائي
होंठ	(m) Lip.	ہونٹھ
कड़वा	(adj.) Bitter.
स्रोत	(m) Source. (स्रोतः Flow or course of water, current; a rapid stream, a river, a torrent; a wave; a spring (cf. sot; sotā).	سروت
रिवाज	(m) Custom, convention.	رواج
सरपट	(adv.) Full gallop.	سرپٹ
फोड़ना	(v.t.) To break, crack, split, burst open.	پهوڙنا
दाखिल कराना	(v.t.) to have admitted, signed up for	داخل کرنا
पट्‍टी	(f) Lesson; slate.
पंक्तिवार	adj. (seated) in rows

p. 33

जिल्द	(f). 1) the skin, 2) the cover or binding of a book	جلد
पृष्ठ	(m) page
अक्षर	(adj+m) 1) adj. imperishable, unchangeable, 2) m. letter (i.e. of the alphabet)
ड्योढ़ा	(adj.+m) 1) adj. increased by one half, 2) m. multiplication by one and a half
तख्ती	(f) 1) a small board, a child's writing board	تختی
दवात	(f) 1) an inkwell	دوات
सेलखड़ी	(f) chalk
नल	(m) tap	نل
नीम	(m) 1) the neem tree, known for its bitter fruit and for the medicinal properties of its leaves	نیم
पंचायत	(f) 1) a village council, court, or arbitrating body, 2) a caste council, 3) village meeting
जुड़ना	v.i. 1) to be joined, to be attached, to be added or appended
गिनती	(f) 1) counting, enumeration, calculation, 2) reckoning, account
अध्यापक	(m) 1) teacher, instructor
कक्षा	(f) class (as in school)
संभालना	v.t. 1) to support or sustain, to hold up, 2) to adjust (clothing)
नाक-भौंह	(f) 1) nose and brows
सिकोड़ना	v.t 1) to draw in or together, to become of a smaller size 2) to shrivel, to wrinkle (नाक-भौंह सिकोड़ना means to make a face/do something unwillingly, hesitatingly)
चढ़ाना	v.t. 1) to cause to rise up, to raise, to lift up
जिम्मेदारी	(f) 1) responsibility, obligation, trust, liability, charge	ذمہ داری
निभाना	v.t. 1) to carry on or through, to complete, to fulfill
कार्य	(m) 1) action, act, activity, 2) work, task, duty, function
बाल्टी	(f) 1) a bucket
छलकना	v.i. 1) to be spilt, to spill, to splash, 2) to overflow
बिखरना	v.i. 1) to be scattered, to be dispersed
छज्जा	(m) 1) a balcony, a gallery, 2) eaves, an overhang
आपचक	(m) a waterwheel?
पेशाब	(m). urine
हड़बड़ाना	v.i. 1) to be in a hurry, 2) to be confused or flurried
नाड़ा	(m) 1) tape, 2) a drawstring of a piece of clothing
शोर	(m) 1) noise, cry, din, 2) uproar
मचाना	v.t. 1) to stir up, to cause to, to produce (only used with nouns that mean noise, such as शोर)	شور
चिल्लाना	v.t. 1) to cry out loudly, to shout, to scream	چلانا
जल-भुनना	v.i. 1) to be burned, roasted, parched, fried, etc.
संतोष	(m) 1) satisfaction, contentment, pleasure
आखिर	adv. 1) finally, at last, in the end	آخر

p. 34 (and a few lines on p. 35)

अशिक्षा	f. lack of education, ignorance. (note the अ prefix, denoting the negation of शिक्षा, f. learning, lesson, etc).	شکشا،
अंट-शंट (rel: अंट-संट)	adj., idiomatic - inappropriate, nonsense.	انٹ شنٹ
गंजा	adj. or m. bald/bald-headed	گنجا
काना (or काणा)	adj. or m. one-eyed	کانا
अधिकतर	adv. mostly	ادھکتر
	[at this point, he goes into the ridiculous names - some of them seem to be idiomaticized versions of words, others are just ridiculous: चटनी, for example]
ढोल	m. drum	دول
चोल	We know चोला is a gown - but regardless, these are some fantastic names. (And keep in mind the issue for dalits of having their own name and identity --"we are not just your servants to be talked to in this way--we are people!" Not having even a proper name or not being recognized as such by upper castes is thus yet one more humiliation)	چول
बिगाड़ना	v.t. 1. to spoil, 2. to corrupt (a person) 3. to cause loss	بگاڑنا
संबोधन करना	to address somebody (it is related to the Sanskrit root बुध, from which "Buddha" derives).	سمبودھن
संवाहक	m. conductor	سنواہک
आर्य	m. Aryan	آریہ
सभ्यता	m. civilization	سبھیتا
पोषक	m./adj. nurturing/nourishing	پوشک
धुनाई	f. attack	دھنای
समता	f. equality	سمتا
बराबरी	f. level, par, equality	برابري
ताई माँ	(familial relation) father's elder brother's wife/paternal uncle's wife.	تائی ماں

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