SIX == METERS
*6.1
== The meter list*
*6.2 == Mir's "Hindi"
meter*
*6.3
== The rubāʿī meters*
A systematic discussion of Urdu
meter, or baḥr [ba;hr], would take us into
the thick of Arabic and Persian poetic theory. As in the case of the
afāʿīl , we must refer the theoretically-minded
student to the works suggested in the Bibliography.
For practical purposes, we offer a list of the meters commonly used
in Urdu, with their full technical names, in an order designed for
easy reference: starting with meters with the greatest number of initial
long syllables, and ending with those with the fewest. This list is
not quite complete, but the meters not included in it are very rare
indeed. In the interest of simplicity, rare variants permissible within
certain meters are not shown. Classical poetry is basically confined
to the meters we have given; modern naz̤m [na:zm],
of course, often takes liberties with the traditional meters, or even
rejects them entirely.
We have shown the division of the
meters into feet. The feet of course correspond to the [afaa((iil]
described in Chapter 5. Note that all Urdu
meters end with a long syllable--after which a short "cheat syllable"
is permitted to occur, at the poet's pleasure, in almost all meters--and
that three short syllables may never occur in succession.
For convenience in reference, the
meters are arranged in order according to their number of initial
long syllables, from the ones with most initial long syllables to
the ones with fewest.
6.1 == The meter list
1 = = = /= - =
/ - = =
{ hazaj musaddas aḳhram ashtar maḥżūf } [hazaj
musaddas a;xram ashtar ma;h;zuuf]. May be used with #9.
2 = = / - = = // = = / -
= =
{ mutaqārib muṡamman aṡram } [mutaqaarib
mu;samman a;sram]. Has caesura.
3 = = - = / =
= - = / = = - = / = = - =
{ rajaz muṡamman sālim } [rajaz
mu;samman saalim]
4 = = - / = -
= = // = = - / = - = =
{ muẓāriʿ muṡamman aḳhrab } [mu.zaari((
mu;samman a;xrab]. Has caesura.
5 = = - / = -
= - / - = = - / = - =
{ muẓāriʿ muṡamman aḳhrab makfūf maḥżūf
} [mu.zaari(( mu;samman a;xrab
makfuuf ma;h;zuuf]
6 = = / - - =
/ = = / = = / = = / - - = / = = / = =
{ mutadārik muṡamman muẓāʿaf maqt̤ūʿ maḳhbūn
} [mutadaarik mu;samman mu.zaa((af
maq:tuu(( ma;xbuun]. Very rare. May also be used in a flexible form
in which any odd-numbered long may be replaced by two shorts.
7 = = - / - =
= = // = = - / - = = =
{ hazaj muṡamman aḳhrab }
[hazaj mu;samman a;xrab]. Has caesura.
8 = = - / - =
= - / - = = - / - = =
{ hazaj muṡamman aḳhrab makfūf maḥżūf }
[hazaj mu;samman a;xrab makfuuf ma;h;zuuf]
A note for those with theoretical interests: Mir's ghazal M{618} is in this meter. In its first line, the two short syllables in the middle of the line are replaced by one long syllable: din dūrī chaman meñ jo ham shām kareñge . This is the kind of thing that readily happens in the rubāʿī meters (see section 6.3 below); and indeed, this meter is very close to the first ruba'i meter in the list. In several decades of ghazal reading, this one line is the only such example in this meter that I have ever seen. It's rare, but it's there. But since it's so rare, I cannot formulate a practical rule about when to expect it. I have discussed the theory of this with S. R. Faruqi (July 2017); he advises me to refer serious students of metrical theory to the chapter on taskīn-e ausat̤ in his book ʿarūẓ āhang aur bayān . For another example of taskīn-e ausat̤ see {1722,6}. Another Mirian example: {1768,7}.
9 = = - / - =
- = / - = =
{ hazaj musaddas aḳhrab maqbūẓ maḥżūf }
[hazaj musaddas a;xrab maqbuu.z ma;h;zuuf]. May be used with #1.
10 = - = = / =
- = = / = - = = / = - =
{ ramal muṡamman maḥżūf }
[ramal mu;samman ma;h;zuuf]
11 = - = = / =
- = = / = - =
{ ramal musaddas maḥżūf }
[ramal musaddas ma;h;zuuf]
12 = - = / = -
= / = - = / = - = / = - = / = - = / = - = / = - =
{ mutadārik muṡamman muẓāʿaf sālim }
[mutadaarik mu;samman mu.zaa((af saalim]. Sometimes used with only
four feet; in this case the [mu.zaa((af] is dropped from its name.
13 = - = / = -
= / = - = / =
{ mutadārik muṡamman maqt̤ūʿ maḥżūf }
[mutadaarik mu;samman maq:tuu((
ma;h;zuuf]
14 =* - = = /
- = - = / = =
{ ḳhafīf musaddas maḳhbūn maḥżūf maqt̤ūʿ
} [;xafiif musaddas ma;xbuun
ma;h;zuuf maq:tuu((]. May be used with #15. *The first syllable is
properly long, but may be replaced with a short.
15 =* - = = /
- = - = / - - =
{ ḳhafīf musaddas maḳhbūn maḥżūf } [;xafiif
musaddas ma;xbuun ma;h;zuuf]. May be used with #14. *The first syllable
is properly long, but may be replaced with a short.
16 =* - = = /
- - = = / = =
{ ramal musaddas maḳhbūn maḥżūf maqt̤ūʿ
} [ramal musaddas ma;xbuun
ma;h;zuuf maq:tuu((]. May be used with #17. *The first syllable is
properly long, but may be replaced with a short.
17 =* - = = /
- - = = / - - =
{ ramal musaddas maḳhbūn maḥżūf } [ramal
musaddas ma;xbuun ma;h;zuuf]. May be used with #16. *The first syllable
is properly long, but may be replaced with a short.
18 =* - = = /
- - = = / - - = = / = =
{ ramal muṡamman maḳhbūn maḥżūf maqt̤ūʿ
} [ramal mu;samman ma;xbuun
ma;h;zuuf maq:tuu((]. May be used with #19. *The first syllable is
properly long, but may be replaced with a short.
19 =* - = = /
- - = = / - - = = / - - =
{ ramal muṡamman maḳhbūn maḥżūf } [ramal
mu;samman ma;xbuun ma;h;zuuf]. May be used with #18. *The first syllable
is properly long, but may be replaced with a short.
20 = - = / - =
= = // = - = / - = = =
{ hazaj muṡamman ashtar } [hazaj
mu;samman ashtar]. Has caesura.
21 = - = / - =
- = // = - = / - = - =
{ hazaj muṡamman ashtar maqbūẓ }
[hazaj mu;samman ashtar maqbuu.z]. Has caesura.
22 = - - = / =
- = // = - - = / = - =
{ munsariḥ muṡamman mat̤vī maksūf }
[munsari;h mu;samman ma:tvii maksuuf]. Has caesura.
23 = - - = / =
- = - / = - - = / =
{ munsariḥ muṡamman mat̤vī manḥūr }
[munsari;h mu;samman ma:tvii man;huur]
24 = - - = / =
- - = / = - =
{ sarīʿ musaddas mat̤vī maksūf }
[sarii(( musaddas ma:tvii maksuuf]
25 = - - = / -
= - = // = - - = / - = - =
{ rajaz muṡamman mat̤vī maḳhbūn }
[rajaz mu;samman ma:tvii ma;xbuun] Has caesura.
26 - = = = / -
= = = / - = = = / - = = =
{ hazaj muṡamman sālim } [hazaj
mu;samman saalim]. Not allowed to have extra unscanned short syllable
at the end.
27 - = = = / -
= = = / - = =
{ hazaj musaddas maḥżūf }
[hazaj musaddas ma;h;zuuf]
28 - = = / - =
= / - = = / - = =
{ mutaqārib muṡamman sālim }
[mutaqaarib mu;samman saalim]
29 - = = / - =
= / - = = / - =
{ mutaqārib muṡamman maḥżūf }
[mutaqaarib mu;samman ma;h;zuuf]
30 - = - / = =
/ - = - / = = / - = - / = = / - = - / = =
{ mutaqārib muṡamman muẓāʿaf maqbūẓ aṡlam
} [mutaqaarib mu;samman mu.zaa((af
maqbuu.z a;slam]
31 - = - / = =
/ - = - / = = / - = - / = =
{ mutaqārib musaddas muẓāʿaf maqbūẓ aṡlam
} [mutaqaarib musaddas mu.zaa((af
maqbuu.z a;slam]
32 - = - = / -
= - = / - = - = / - = - =
{ hazaj muṡamman mazbūẓ }
[hazaj mu;samman maqbuu.z]
33 - = - = / -
- = = / - = - = / = =
{ mujtaṡ muṡamman maḳhbūn maḥżūf maqt̤ūʿ
} [mujta;s mu;samman ma;xbuun
ma;h;zuuf maq:tuu((]. May be used with #34.
34 - = - = / -
- = = / - = - = / - - =
{ mujtaṡ muṡamman maḳhbūn maḥżūf }
[mujta;s mu;samman ma;xbuun ma;h;zuuf]. May be used with #33.
35 - = - = / -
- = = / - = - = / - - = =
{ mujtaṡ muṡamman maḳhbūn }
[mujta;s mu;samman ma;xbuun]. Does not have caesura.
36 - - = - / =
- = = // - - = - / = - = =
{ ramal muṡamman mashkūl } [ramal
mu;samman mashkuul] Has caesura.
37 - - = - = /
- - = - = / - - = - = / - - = - =
{ kāmil muṡamman sālim }
[kaamil mu;samman saalim]
Each meter in the list above is described by a series
of Arabic terms, the first of which is the name of the basic meter
itself. The second is either muṡamman [mu;samman],
describing a meter with four feet, or musaddas
[musaddas], describing a meter with three feet. The rest of the terms
describe the modifications, ziḥāfāt [zi;haafaat],
by which the basic or sālim meter has been
converted into the particular meter being described.
At the end of a line of poetry in
any of these meters, an extra word-final short syllable may be present if the poet
so chooses. This word-final short syllable is not scanned. Such a syllable almost
always consists of a true one-letter short syllable, or of a syllable
of the form { ʾ [hamzah] + vowel}. This short
"cheat syllable" is permitted in all the meters except #26.
A number of meters on the above list have
a natural "caesura," or break, halfway through each line. This is not formally a "caesura" in the Western metrical sense, so it's technically a kind of "quasi-caesura": but for convenience it is here called a "caesura." All such meters
have the following pattern of feet: foot A, foot B; (break); foot A,
foot B. In these meters, an extra word-final short syllable, unscanned, may be present at the end of the first half of the line, just before the (quasi-)caesura.
Meters which permit this extra unscanned word-final short syllable before the
caesura are: #2, #4, #7, #20, #21, #22, #25, #36. Note that #35 does
not have such a caesura. The caesura was not traditionally recognized
in Urdu-Persian metrical theory; it was first explored by Hasrat Mohani
[ ḥasrat mohānī ] in maʿāʾib-e
suḳhan [ma((aa))iib-e su;xan] (Kanpur, 1941), and has since been
studied by S. R. Faruqi in ʿarūẓ
āhang aur bayān .
Most traditional genres of poetry
may be written in any meter. The ġhazal [Gazal],
qaṣīdah [qa.siidah], and marṡiyah
[mar;siyah] offer this freedom, as do most of the minor genres. The
maṡnavī [ma;snavii] is traditionally supposed
to be written in one of the following meters: #1 with #9; #11; #14
with #15; #16 with #17; #24; #27; #28; #29. But this is not binding,
only customary. Permissible meters for the rubāʿī
[rubaa((ii], however, are very clearly spelled out; see Section
6.3 for details. Free verse, or āzād naz̤m
[aazaad na:zm], tends to use either #28 or "Hindi" meter (see Section
6.2).
You might have noticed certain pairs
of meters-- #1 and #9, #14 and #15, #16 and #17, #18 and #19, #33
and #34-- which differ only in that the next-to-last syllable consists
of one long (=) in the first member of the pair, which is replaced
by two shorts (- -) in the second member. From a practical point of
view, it does indeed seem as though these are permutations of a single
meter. But from a theoretical point of view, they are quite separate;
poems are sometimes written using only one member of the pair. So
we have shown them separately, but have also indicated their close
affiliation.
Sometimes, when scanning, the student
may encounter quite deviant-seeming poems, in which often almost every single
line seems different from the next. This might occur in dealing with
the flexible variant form of #6. More common than this form, however,
is Mir's "Hindi" meter, which will be dealt with below.
6.2 == Mir's "Hindi" meter
Mir introduced, or at least used
extensively and made popular, a meter very unlike the meters of conventional
prosody. (In fact the meter was apparently first used by Mir Jafar Zatalli [mīr
jaʿfar zat̤allī] (d. 1712) in a few of his longish satirical poems.)
Although expressible in terms of the standard afāʿīl
, this meter is highly irregular. The lines are equal in length in
that they all have eight feet, but they do not always contain an equal
number of syllables. Hardly anything is absolutely fixed in this meter
except that the last syllable in each line must be long, short syllables
must occur in pairs, and the short syllables in each pair may be separated
by no more than one long.
Usually the first four feet contain
eight long syllables or their equivalent (with two short syllables
counted as equal to one long), and the last four feet contain seven
long syllables, for a total line equal to fifteen long syllables.
Yet other variations of this meter, used by Mir and others, contain
fourteen long syllables (seven plus seven) or sixteen long syllables
(eight plus eight). Shorter variants of it too are sometimes seen. As with other meters, an extra short syllable,
unscanned, is allowed at the end of the line.
There has been a great deal of
controversy over whether this meter was invented by Mir--or rather,
as it now appears, by Zatalli--or somehow already exists within the
conventional framework, or is a Hindi meter modified and adapted for
Urdu. Most prosodists now hold the latter view; certainly this is
basically a moric meter like many Indic meters, rather than a positional
one like those of the traditional Perso-Arabic system. Within the
traditional system, this meter could be called { mutaqārib
muṡamman muẓāʿaf } [mutaqaarib mu;samman mu.zaa((af] with
varying modifications. A half-length form of it which has been described
as { mutaqārib muṡamman aṡram aṡlam abtar
} [mutaqaarib mu;samman a;sram a;slam abtar] is also sometimes used
in Urdu. On the whole, however, these theoretical discussions are
not too helpful to the student who wants to use the meter in practice.
Here then is a form of ostensive
definition of Mir's "Hindi" meter: a list of the various configurations
which commonly occur in its first four feet. They are shown in the
traditional [afaa((iil] patterns into which they could be broken:
a) = = / = = / = = / = =
b) = = / = = / = - / - = =
c) = = / = - / - = = / = =
d) = = / = - / - = - / - = =
e) = - / - = = / = = / = =
f) = - / - = = / = - / - = =
g) = - / - = - / - = = / = =
h) = - / - = - / - = - / - = =
Each of these patterns contains
the equivalent of eight long syllables. Usually the second half of
the line contains the equivalent of seven long syllables. Its customary
patterns differ from those given above only by the omission of the
final long syllable.
Another form of definition is that
used by Russell and
Matthews and Shackle. It
is an admirably simple one. It envisions the meter as generated by
a pattern like the following, in which every even-numbered long syllable
except the eighth can be replaced at will by two short syllables:
= ( = ) / = ( = ) / = ( = ) / =
= // = ( = ) / = ( = ) / = ( = ) / =
This is a convenient and powerful
way to think of the meter, and offers a breakdown of syllables more
simple and lucid than that offered by the regular [afaa((iil]--as
can be seen by comparing it with patterns (a) through (h) shown above.
We recommend it to the student as the best general analytical notion
of this meter.
However, both of the above attempts
at schematization eventually break down. Mir simply uses this meter
in more complex and idiosyncratic ways than can be shown in these
or any diagrams. Sometimes he does break the eighth long syllable
into two shorts, thus disposing of the "caesura" as a reliable metrical
constant; sometimes his word boundaries themselves flow over the "caesura,"
thus disposing of it as a semantic organizing principle. (And in any
case the break in this meter never permits an extra unscanned short
syllable before it, as do the more solid caesuras in some of the regular meters.)
It's true that more often than not the break does seem to be there,
but it is certainly optional rather than compulsory. Here is an example
from Mir's fifth divan [M{1590,1}] which abolishes the caesura on all levels:
{ shahr se yār
savār huʾā jo savād meñ ḳhūb ġhubār hai āj }
This line can be broken up as follows:
[shah-r se yaa-r
sa-vaa-r hu-))aa jo sa-vaa-d
me;N ;xuu-b ;Gu-baa-r hai aa-j]
= - - /= - - /= - - /= - - /= -
- /= - - /= - - /= (-)
This is not the only line in which
Mir violates the caesura metrically, or in which he violates it semantically,
but it is one of the few in which he violates it both ways at once.
It seems also to be the only line in any of his divans in which he
breaks every single even-numbered long syllable into two short syllables.
(By contrast, there are a number of lines in which all the syllables are long; one example is the second line of M{1537,1}; another is the first line of M{1706,7}.)
Moreover, note that in this meter short syllables
can also sometimes occur in a kind of syncopated pattern, (- = -),
which is not allowed for in any of the above diagrams. An example
of this syncopated pattern appears in the fourth verse of Ghazal
Six, by Jur'at, in the Exercises. Even in this syncopated form
short syllables do, however, always occur in pairs, and cannot be separated by more than one long syllable. Examples from Mir: M{1177,5}; M{1590,2}; M{1590,7}; M{1650,3}; M{1658,4}; M{1714,6}; M{1741,3}. A problematical case, with extensive throretical disdiscussion by SRF: M{1624,1}.
What then do you really need to
know about this meter? Basically, that it can be recognized by its
remarkable length--hardly any of the regular meters are as long--and
its alarmingly erratic syllable pattern. It can be generally understood
according to Russell's model, with suitable reservations about the
caesura (not always present), the pairs of short syllables (once in a while they
have a long between them) and the line length (though in different poets' versions it can vary by a syllable
or two, and truncated versions of the meter can also be used). It's
a very rhythmic and lively meter, a great pleasure to recite; with
just a bit of practice, it becomes quite familiar. Here is the most famous, classic example of it: M{07}. The only Ghalibian example I have found: {267x}.
For a thorough discussion of Mir's own use of this meter, see baḥr-e mīr , pp. 175-187, in the preface to volume 1 of shiʿr-e shor-angez , by Shamsur Rahman Faruqi (New Delhi: Taraqqi Urdu Bureau, 2006).
6.3 == The rubāʿī
meters
The rubāʿī
[rubaa((ii], or quatrain, is, like most genres of Urdu poetry, adopted
from Persian, and has an extremely rigid metrical scheme. The [rubaa((ii]
is written in a modified form of the hazaj [hazaj]
meter. There are twenty-four fixed forms prescribed for it, and a
[rubaa((ii] may contain any four of them. However, twelve of the twenty-four
are distinguished only by the presence of a final short syllable that
in fact need not be scanned at all, so in fact there are only twelve
genuine forms. Of these, only six have been commonly used in Urdu.
All the rubāʿī
forms consist of lines with the metrical equivalent of ten long syllables. All these lines have four feet, and the last foot is always
shorter than the others. These lines have no caesura. The first two syllables in each line, and the last syllable of course, are
always long. As in most other meters, an extra unscanned short syllable is allowed at the very end of the line.
For the third, the sixth, and/or the ninth long syllable, two short syllables may be substituted at will. Also at will, in the case of the sixth long syllable only, these pairs of short syllables may be divided so as to surround the long syllable before them. Thus long syllables five and six can be changed from = = not only into = - - , but also into - = - .
Here is a list of the rubāʿī
forms used in Urdu, roughly in order of popularity. All the meter
names start with hazaj muṡamman [hazaj mu;samman...
POPULAR: [hazaj
mu;samman...
1 = = - / - = = - / - =
= - / - =
...a;xrab makfuuf majbuub]
{ aḳhrab makfūf majbūb }...
2 = = - / - = = - / - =
= = / =
...a;xrab makfuuf abtar] { aḳhrab makfūf
abtar }...
3 = = - / - = - = / - =
= = / =
...a;xrab maqbuu.z abtar] { aḳhrab maqbūẓ
abtar }...
4 = = - / - = - = / - =
= - / - =
...a;xrab maqbuu.z makfuuf majbuub] { aḳhrab maqbūẓ
makfūf majbūb }...
5 = = = / = - = / - = =
- / - =
...a;xram ashtar makfuuf majbuub] { aḳhram ashtar
makfūf majbūb }...
6 = = = / = - = / - = =
= / = ...a;xram ashtar abtar] { aḳhram ashtar
abtar }...
RARE:
[hazaj mu;samman...
7 = = - / - = = = / = =
= / =
...a;xrab a;xram abtar] {
aḳhrab aḳhram abtar }...
8 = = - / - = = = / = =
- / - =
...a;xrab majbuub] { aḳhrab majbūb }...
9 = = = / = = = / = = -
/ - =
...a;xram a;xrab majbuub] { aḳhram aḳhrab majbūb
}...
10 = = = / = = = / = = =
/ =
...a;xram abtar] { aḳhram abtar }...
11 = = = / = = - / - = = = / = ...a;xram
a;xrab abtar] { aḳhram aḳhrab abtar }...
12 = = = / = = - / - = =
- / - =
...a;xram a;xrab makfuuf majbuub { aḳhram aḳhrab
makfūf majbūb }...
Inspired by Russell's simplification
of Mir's meter, here is what might be called the Pritchett formulation
of rubāʿī meter: a set of ten long syllables
which may be grouped into (nontraditional) feet of three, three, three,
and one long syllables. The final long in each foot may be freely
replaced by two shorts, and the second foot ONLY may be freely replaced
by (= - = -). This is what it looks like in schematic form:
| 1 |
2 |
3 |
/ |
4 |
5 |
6 |
/ |
7 |
8 |
9 |
/ |
10 |
| = |
= |
(=) |
/ |
= |
= |
(=) |
/ |
= |
= |
(=) |
/ |
= |
| |
|
(- -) |
/ |
|
|
(- -) |
/ |
|
|
(- -) |
/ |
|
| |
|
|
/ |
(= |
- |
= -) |
/ |
|
|
|
/ |
|
It seems that this diagram will
generate all the rubāʿī meters, and it certainly
has the merit of conciseness. At a basic level, however, what you really need to know about ruba'i meter is that a poem four lines long with
a rhyme scheme AABA or AAAA is most probably going to turn out to
BE a ruba'i. Then you can look it up in this book until you get
used to it. In our experience these meters take longer to get used to than
most meters, but their subtlety and sophistication help to make the ruba'i what it is.
Mir has one ghazal that uses rubāʿī meter: M{1267}. No other classical ghazal poet has any, according to S. R. Faruqi.
