== Grammar notes ==

Normal Urdu/Hindi grammar is relatively easy and straightforward. But Ghalib’s verses make life difficult for everybody. Even if you’re a modern native speaker, there will probably be aspects of Ghalib’s grammar that you’ll need to study. (Modern English speakers need to do a bit of work when they read Shakespeare, too.) If you’d like more systematic help, check out the Urdu/Hindi resource page—especially the Naim grammar materials made available there.

== GRAMMAR, USAGE, VOCABULARY == IDIOMATIC EXPRESSIONS == ARCHAISMS == SCRIPT/SCANSION ODDITIES ==

Grammar, usage, and special vocabulary
(some examples discussed and illustrated in various verses)

AAP as polite 3rd person pronoun == {4,7}; {210,5}
AAP as oneself == {17,3}; {92,7}
AGAR colloquially omitted from if/then == {36,1}; {111,5}; {122,1}
'ALWAYS' CONSTRUCTION == {215,1}*
APNAA and its ambiguities == {15,12}*
AUR PHRASES == {3,1}; {62}; {66}; {86,4}
BAARE == {31,3}*
BAAT, colloquially omitted, and versatility== {59,2}*
BAGHAIR == {59,1}*
BAH spelled as BAA for meter == {94,2}
'BALAA' expressions == {58,1}*
BASKIH == {1,5}*
*BE-DILII == {8,2}*
*BE-KHUDII == {21,6}*
'BHALAA expressions == {21,11}*
BHII == see the SETS page
BISMIL as 'wounded' == {8,3}
*BISTAR == {194,1}*
*BLOOD-PRICE == {21,9}*
*BOOKBINDING AND THREADS == {10,12}*
CHAAHIYE and its complexities == {81,11x}; {188,3x}; {189}
*CHAAK-E GAREBAAN == {17,9}*
*CHIRAAGHAAN == {5,5}*
*COLLYRIUM == {44,1}*
COMPOUND VERBS == {5}, {19,5}; {20,2}; {25}; {27,6}; {36,6}; {46,2}; {46,4}; {48}; {90,5}; {137,1}; {201,4}
CONTINUATIVES == {20,1}
CONTRAFACTUALS == {20}, {31}, {32}; {61,4}; {62,6}; {62,9}; {66,7}; {99,5}; {177,1}?; {179,3}
*'CRACK OF DAWN' == {67,1}*
*CURLS == {14,6}*
DEKHNAA (look at, see)== {106,1}; {106,4}; {120,5}; {125,5}*; {153,1}
*DIRECT DISCOURSE == {140,2}*
DISTRIBUTIVE FORMS == {10,11}; {15,12}; {16,1}
*DO-ALAM EXPRESSIONS == {18,2}*
*DOOMSDAY == {10,11}*
*'EMBRACE OF LEAVE-TAKING' == {57,6}*
*'EVIL EYE' == {106,3}*
*FAANUUS == {39,1}*
*FINGER ON THE TEETH == {74,2x}*
*'FOOT OF' expressions == {152,3}*
*FOOT-PRESSING == {193,5}*
FUTURE == {25}
FUTURE IMPERATIVE =={141,7}; {176,5} (subj.); {196,4}
FUTURE SUBJUNCTIVE == {14,4}; {46}; {88}; {89}; {99,1}; {124,1}; {163,1}
GOYAA == {5,1}*
*GUL KHAANAA == {67,2}*
*HAIRAT == {51,9x}*
*HENNA == {18,4}*
HII == {115,1}
IMPERATIVE == {56}, {79}
INFINITIVE == {1,2}; {17}, {48}
INFINITIVE as neutral imperative == {111,16}; {147,3}
INTERROGATIVE == {85}
INTRANSITIVE VERSUS TRANSITIVE) == {26,8}; {52,1}; {72,3}; {170,3}; {191,1}; {191,8}
IS versus US == {173,2}
IZAAFAT == {16,1}*; {49}, {53}, {80}; {96,3} and {97,8}, doubled final consonant; {173,8}, equational
JAANNAA for 'consider' == {16,5}*
JAB KIH == {53,8}; or JO KIH, {39,4}
JAB TAK with NAH == {38,4}*; {214,1}
*JAUHAR == {5,4}*
JO == {12,2}*
KAA vs. KE PAAS == {140,4}
KAA/KE/KII as ambiguous in agency, 'his thought' == {41,6}*
KAHIIN as 'lest' indicator == {106,3}; {121,7}; {151,7}; {191,3}
KAR CONSTRUCTION == {60}; KE instead: {29,4}, {29,6x}, {53,9}; {49,7}; {56,5}; {72,4};
KAR CONSTRUCTION as adverbial == {53,9}
KAR DELETION == {58,7}
KAASH == {31,3}; {43,3}; {132,4}; {162,3}; {179,2}; {191,3}; {202,5}; {208,12}
KE of possession as not agreeing == {57,2}
*KHAAL == {85,3}*
*KHAMYAAZAH == {12,2}*
*KHAT as the 'line' on the wineglass == {81,6x}*
KHONAA as both trans. and intrans. == {153,6}
*KHUMAAR == {12,2}*
KIH == {13,6}*
*KNOTS == {8,2}*
KO in place of KE LIYE == {140,1}; {174,10}
KO, grammar problems: {35,6}
KYA == versatility: {15,10}*; not present but required: {36,10}*
LAGNAA and LAGAANAA == {105,1}
LAGNAA with OBLIQUE INFINITIVE == {4,5}
*LAALAH and DAAGH == {33,1}*
*LINE of the glass == {81,6x}*
*LIVER VS. HEART == {30,2}*
MAANNAA as either trans. or intrans. == {125,8}
MAGAR == {35,7}*
*MAHMIL == {147,7x}*
MILNAA == {97,1}
*MIRAGE == {16,4}*
*MIRROR-CHAMBER == {10,5}*
*MISSII == {417x,2}*
*MUSK-DEER == {141,5}*
NAFAS vs. NAFS == {15,6}*
NAH...NAH == {3,3}; {20,9}; {119,8} (second one omitted)
NAH spelled as NE for meter == {98,4}; {169,2}; {169,11}
*NARCISSUS == {56,4}*
*NASHTAR == {166,2}*
NE vs. non-NE FORMS == {153,9}
*NECK-RING == {54,1}*
NEGATION complexities == {87,3}
NOUN COMPOUNDS == {129,6x}*
OBLIQUE PLURAL AS INCLUSIVE == {219,1}
OMISSION OF SUBJECT == {97,3}
OMISSION OF INITIAL AGAR/JAB == {22,7}*
PA;RNAA == {80,2}
'PASSIVE OF IMPOSSIBILITY' == {205,4}
PAST PARTICIPLE or PERFECT TENSE? == {115,2}*
PAST PARTICIPLE, ADJECTIVAL == {4,5}; {7,2}; {87,7}; {97,9}; {126,11}; {131,4}, with huʾe omitted; {137,2}, jale huʾoñ ; {142,1}, with huʾī omitted; [{160,3}, with huʾī omitted]
PAST PARTICIPLE, ADVERBIAL == {16,3}; {19,4}; {59,1}*, with baġhair ; {70,3}, with hī ; {77,5}, {80,2}, with huʾe omitted; {115,2}, with huʾe omitted; {151,4}; {151,7}, with baġhair ; {233}
PAST PARTICIPAL, NOMINATIVE == {174,5}
PERFECT (INTRANSITIVE) == {3,4}; {5}; {6}; {14}, {34}, {35}, {41}, {164,9} (discussed in connection with participle)
PERFECT (TRANSITIVE) == {4}; {18,5}; {19,7}; {29}
PERFECT used for subjunctive == {35,9}*
PERFECT == skewed correlation with English == {38,1}*
PHIR == {4,5}
PLURALIZED ABSTRACTIONS == {1,2}*
POLITE IMPERATIVE used for subjunctive == {10,2}; {68,9x}; {91,2}; {116,5}; {127,3}; {130,1}; {130,6x}; {153,4}; {157,5}; {178,9}; {220,1}
POSSESSIVE as both ‘of’ and ‘belonging to’== {41,6}*
POSTPOSITIONS == {57}, {59}, {61}, {64}, {72}, {78}; {87,7}
POSTPOSITIONS == GHOSTPOSITIONS == {160,3} (adverb of time)
PRESENT HABITUAL == {61,6}, with hai omitted; {86}
PRESENT HABITUAL TO EXPRESS FIRM RESOLVE == {119,10}
PRESENT PARTICIPLE, ADVERBIAL == {53,9}
PRESENT PARTICIPLE, ADVERBIAL, DOUBLED == {48,7}; {52,1}; {72,3}; {97,4}
PRESUMPTIVE == {10,11}*; {111,1}; {178,5}; {232,9}
*PUNBAH-E RAUZAN == {87,4}*
*RASHK == {53,4}*
*RAUZAN == {64,4}*
*REEDS == {10,3}*
RELATIVE PRONOUNS, JAB-TAB == {173,3}
RELATIVE PRONOUNS, JITNAA-UTNAA == {98,5}
RELATIVE PRONOUNS, JO-VUH == {6,3}; {10,1}
RESTRUCTIVE vs. UNRESTRICTIVE clauses == {229,6}
*RIND == {71,10}*
SAA/SE/SII == {14,5}; {22,1}; {86,4}
SAHII == {9,4}*
SAKNAA == {3,6}; {7,6}; {20,3}; {89}
*SALT in wounds == {77,1}*
SAMAJHNAA as ‘to believe’ == {90,3}*
SE == {58,7}, 'because of' or 'by means of'; {84,9x}, or jaise ; {103,2x}, 'with' or 'than'; {176,1}*; {190,1}; {319x,7}
*SEALS and signet-rings == {61,5}*
*SHAME/HONOR == {3,5}*
SINGULAR VERB after plural subjects == {64,3}
*SIX DIRECTIONS == {41,4}*
*SPARKS and STONES == {20,6}*
*SPRINGTIME == {49,4}*
*STONE-THROWING == {35,10}*
*STYLIZATION == {60,8}*
SUBJECT OMITTED == {138,6}; {220,1}
SUBJUNCTIVE (versatility) == {191,7}*
SUNNAA as both 'hear' and 'listen to' =={51,7x}; {186,3}; {199,3}
*SUVAIDA == {3,2}*
*TAQ == {10,1}*
*TAUQ == {54,1}*
*TEETH-BARING SMILES == {149,1}*
*THREADS == {10,12}*
VARNAH == {3,14x}*
*VAZ'A == {115,7}*
VOCATIVE == {84,2x}
*WATER OF LIFE == {49,6}*
YAA / YAA as 'now' and 'then' == {139,6}; {176,7}; {177,7}
YAK EXPRESSIONS == {11,1}*
*YUUN == {30,1}*
*ZAANUU == {32,2}*
*ZANGAAR == {47,1}*
*ZUNNAAR and STYLIZATION == {60,8}*

IDIOMATIC EXPRESSIONS

Also, see the many complex examples linked on the SETS page.

aḥvāl as singular == {57,4}
ānā instead of honā (Persianized) == {8,1}*
bāt colloquially omitted {59,2}
baiṭhnā in liye baiṭhā == {132,6}
balā == {58,1}
banāʾe nah bane expressions == {191,8}*
bas == {210,1}
bhalā == {21,11}
bhūle se == {151,8}
bhī == sometimes it doesn’t mean either ‘too’ or ‘even’— {232,9}
pusht-e chashm == {61,5}*
chhūṭā == kisī se chhūṭā = something was reluctantly, under duress, left by X. == {85,6}
dekhā jānā as ‘endure’ == {153,1}
dekhiye as 'let’s see' == {98,4}
farmānā for karnā == {19,1}; {19,2}; {25,6}
goyā == {5,1}*
hāñ as ‘indeed’ == {36,4}; {66,5}
ho kar as ‘by way of’ == {49,5}
hotī āʾī hai == {86,1}
hī sahī == {148,1}*
jātī hai koʾī == {7,5}
jo in non-relative uses == {20,9}
jo kih == {39,4}
kahāñ yih, kahāñ vuh == {27,2}; {85,7}; {219,9}
kahe baġhair etc. == {59,1}
kahīñ as ‘somehow’ == {193,3}
kar baiṭhnā == {90,5}
kisī ko kuchh kahnā == {86,3}
koʾī == special emphatic negative use: {7,5}*
koʾī == idiomatic non-oblique uses: {66,1}
koʾī batlāʾo , etc. == {46,7}
kuchh idioms == {89,2}
le chalnā == {231,9}
lo for ‘just look at this!’ == {99,5}
maʿlūm == {4,3}*
maʿnī as singular == {57,4}
passive for absolute impossibility == {153,1}; {205,4}
rahā for rahe (futr. subj.) == {102,1}
sahī and its special uses with nah and hī == {9,4}
to == {193,1}
vuh to mean aisā == {14,6}; {20,6}; {22,2}; {23,1}; {31,2}; {49,4}; {68,9x}; {84,6x}; {84,7x}; {84,8x}; {101,3}; {107,6}; {123,8}; {153,4}; {184,2}*; {184,3}; {197,2}; {214,7}; {214,10}; {223,6x}; {229,4}; {230,4}; {234,3}
vuhī to mean aisā hī == {6,11x}; {36,4}
yih to mean aisā == {10,1}; {11,2}; {40,5x}; {58,2}; {84,5x}*; {153,4}; {201,2}; {210,7}; {217,1}; {226,3}; {229,8x}
ḳhāk idioms == {114,1}
yak- as a Persianized idiom-former == {11,1}*
żarā == {177,2}; {193,5}; {207,3}

ARCHAISMS

āveñge for āʾenge, etc. == An archaic form of the future and subjunctive. == {9,9x}; {19}; {59,3}; {61,5}; {68,3}; {73,1}; {84,5x}; {85,6}; {86,9}; {90,3}; {117,3}; {120,7}; {126,3}; {143,6}; {145,5x}; {147,1}; {173}; {192,4}; {195}; {196,5}: {201,2}; {204,10}; {205,8}; {207,3}; {209,3}; {224,1}; {225,1}

bin āʾe etc. == {191,2}*

dekhā chāhiye for dekhnā chāhiye == {1,3}*

dekhe se for dekhne se == {174,5}

Delhi vs. Lucknow, a long discussion by Nazm == {149,3}

future imperative examples:
== second person:
rahyo == {92,4}
rakhyo == {14,1}; {177,13}
samajhyo == {171,2}
dījiyo {186,1}
hūjiye == {72,5}

== third person:
āʾiyo == {176,5}
ā jāʾiyo == {141,7}
dikhāʾiyo == {229,8x}
hūjiyo == {77,3}
hūjo == {190,6}
khāʾiyo == {196,4}
lījo == {83,2}

Note by Prof. Peter Hook (Nov. 2009): The - o ending for the third person imperative derives (most probably) from Skt. -atu as in bhavatu ‘So be it’ (‘Let’s move on to the next topic’) and is still productive in Marathi and Shina. The -j- in huujo is a survival of a (reconstructed) passive form *bhuuyyatu used in later times as a 3rd-person (or a polite) imperative in place of bhuuyataam ‘May it be...’ or ‘Please be...’.

guzre for guzarne == {49,3}

hī forms == {90,5}; {210,2}

hote tak == {78}

huʾe par == {16,5}; {114,2}

jāʾe hai for jātā hai, etc. == Note by Prof. Peter Hook (April 2003): ‘The jāʾe hai , jāʾo ho , jāʾū hūñ , jāʾeñ haiñ pattern is an ‘archaic present’, an alternate but now obsolescent form of the present habitual. The pattern is still found in standard Marwari and Gujarati ( jāʾū chhū , jāʾo chho , jāʾe chhe ). Undoubtedly it must also survive in many rural dialects spoken in UP, MP, Haryana, and Rajasthan. Whether jāʾe hai is older than jātā hai is hard to say. It might represent a conflation of Eastern jāʾe (still used in some places in UP in its ancient OIA present habitual sense and in some frozen phrases and formulae) with the more westerly jātā hai , a later (MIA?) innovation.’ Note by Christina Oesterheld (December 2004): ‘Helmut Nespital has discussed the emergence of the “old present” in Urdu poetry in “The linguistic structure of Hindavi, Dakkhini, early Urdu and and early Khari Boli Hindi” (Berliner Indologische Studien, Band 11/12, Reinbek: Dr. Inge Wezler Verlag für Orientalistische Fachpublikationen, 1998, pp.195-218). Another source is Stuart McGregor, “The Language of Indrajit of Orcha: A Study of Early Braj Bhasa Prose“ (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1968).’ == {13,6}; {17,2}; {17,4}; {27,5}; {42,9x}; {48,9}; {49,6}; {49,7}; {51,2}; {53,8}; {57,9}; {58,8}; {60,5}; {60,8}; {64,2}; {67,3}; {69,1}; {72,6}; {75,3}; {75,7}; {77,5}; {78,2}; {80,8}; {81,2}; {86,4}; {92,2}; {93,3x}; {101,7}; {116,2}; {116,9}; {120,7}; {131,6}; {149,2}; {149,3}; {151,3}* {152,4}; {153} (most verses; in {153,5} it's used together with the modern form); {158,4}; {167,4}; {170,3}; {177,10}; {178,10}; {185,1} (though not necessarily); {187,1} de hai ; {190,1}; {193,2}; {193,6x}, kahve hai ; {196,6}; {199,1}; {201,3}; {205}; {208,8}; {208,9}; {210,5}; {228,5}; {233,8}; {233,10}; {233,12}; {233,13}; {233,14}

kisū kī , etc. == {186,3}; {187,3x}

kam huʾe pah == {16,5}

ke tale for ke nīche == {101,7}

kīje == According to S. R. Faruqi, it’s an archaic short form of kījiye . According to some members of the Urdulist, it’s a still-current short form of kījiye . The linguist Peter Hook derives it from the Sanskrit kriyate ‘(it) is done’, probably like this: kriyate kiryati kijjadi kijjai kīje . He says, ‘The changes include metathesis, analogical leveling, perseverative as well as anticipatory assimilation, voicing of intervocalic stops, compensatory lengthening, monophthongization, and syncope. Together with the changes in form there was a change in function from passive voice and present tense to passive subjunctive (or—sometimes—imperative)’ (Oct. 2009). Examples include {4,1}; {5,4}; {9,6}; {53,10}*; {119,1}; {119,7}; {123,4}; {125,3}; {132,6}; {140,3}; {148,2}; {177,10}; {182,1}; {192,2}; {201,8}; {202,7}; {209,7}. Ghalib also uses dīje in two verses: {68,3}, {209,8}; all parties would maintain their own similar analyses as in the case of kīje . He never uses līje or pīje . I’m still investigating this question; stay tuned for updates. For date from Mir, see *the Mir grammar page*.

ko == {107,3}, discussion

leve == {73,1}

Persianisms of an extreme kind == nigāre in {109,6x}

polite imperative as paṛhye == {26,10}

rāh chaltoñ ke sāmne == [{99,2}]

sāñ for sā (?) == {194,5}